![]() We then present a detailed review of synthetic underwater adhesives that have been reported to date. Third, we explore the adhesive mechanisms showcased by mussels and sandcastle worms to overcome the challenges brought by water. Second, we describe the challenges brought by water when adhering underwater. In this review, we introduce the basic thermodynamics processes and kinetic parameters involved in adhesion. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the progress in the science of underwater adhesion over the past few decades. These naturally occurring adhesives have inspired the creation of several synthetic materials that can stick underwater – a task that was once thought to be “impossible”. Over the past few decades, the physicochemical examination of biological underwater adhesives has begun to decipher the mysteries behind underwater adhesion. For example, sandcastle worms create protective reefs underwater by secreting a cocktail of protein glue that binds mineral particles together, and mussels attach themselves to rocks near tide-swept sea shores using byssal threads formed from their extracellular secretions. However, living creatures routinely adhere to substrates underwater. Water and adhesives have a conflicting relationship as demonstrated by the failure of most man-made adhesives in underwater environments. ![]()
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